Theories of the Reasons Why We Sleep

Theories of the Reasons Why We Sleep Sleep and Dreaming Print Theories on Why We Sleep By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Sanja Jelic, MD on January 21, 2020 Sanja Jelic, MD, is board-certified in sleep medicine, critical care medicine, pulmonary disease, and internal medicine.   Learn about our Medical Review Board Sanja Jelic, MD on January 21, 2020 Cultura - Frank van Delft / Riser / Getty Images More in Psychology Sleep and Dreaming Psychotherapy Basics Student Resources History and Biographies Theories Phobias Emotions In This Article Table of Contents Expand Repair and Restoration Evolutionary Theory Information Consolidation Clean-Up Theory View All Back To Top Sleep has been the subject of speculation and thought since the time of the early Greek philosophers, but only recently have researchers discovered ways to study sleep in a systematic and objective way. The introduction of new technology such as the electroencephalograph (EEG) has allowed scientists to look at and measure electrical patterns and activity produced by the sleeping brain. While we can now investigate sleep and related phenomena, not all researchers agree on exactly why we sleep. Sleeping patterns tend to follow a fairly predictable schedule and experts agree that sleep plays an essential role in health and wellness.  A number of different theories have been proposed to explain the necessity of sleep as well as the functions and purposes of sleep. The following are three of the major theories that have emerged.   Repair and Restoration Theory of Sleep According to the repair and restoration theory of sleep, sleeping is essential for revitalizing and restoring the physiological processes that keep the body and mind healthy and properly functioning.?? This theory suggests that NREM sleep is important for restoring physiological functions, while REM sleep is essential in restoring mental functions. Support for this theory is provided by 2011 research that shows periods of REM sleep increase following periods of sleep deprivation and strenuous physical activity.?? During sleep, the body also increases its rate of cell division and protein synthesis, further suggesting that repair and restoration occur during sleeping periods. Dreams and the REM Stage of Sleep In 2013 researchers have uncovered new evidence supporting the repair and restoration theory, discovering that sleep allows the brain to perform housekeeping duties.?? In the October 2013 issue of the journal Science, researchers published the results of a study indicating that the brain utilizes sleep to flush out waste toxins. This waste removal system, they suggest, is one of the major reasons why we sleep. Its important to realize, however, this study was done on mice and not humans.?? The restorative function of sleep may be a consequence of the enhanced removal of potentially neurotoxic waste products that accumulate in the awake central nervous system, the studys authors explained.?? Earlier research had uncovered the glymphatic system, which carries waste materials out of the brain. According to one of the studys authors, Dr. Maiken Nedergaard, the brains limited resources force it to choose between two different functional states: awake and alert or asleep and cleaning up. They also suggest that problems with cleaning out this brain waste might play a role in a number of brain disorders such as Alzheimers disease.?? Evolutionary Theory of Sleep Evolutionary theory, also known as the adaptive theory of sleep, suggests that periods of activity and inactivity evolved as a means of conserving energy. According to this theory, all species have adapted to sleep during periods of time when wakefulness would be the most hazardous.??   Support for this theory comes from the comparative research of different animal species. Animals that have few natural predators, such as bears and lions, often sleep between 12 to 15 hours each day. On the other hand, animals that have many natural predators have only short periods of sleep, usually getting no more than 4 or 5 hours of sleep each day.?? Information Consolidation Theory of Sleep The information consolidation theory of sleep is based on cognitive research and suggests that people sleep in order to process information that has been acquired during the day. In addition to processing information from the day prior, this theory also argues that sleep allows the brain to prepare for the day to come.?? Some 2012 research also suggests that sleep helps cement the things we have learned during the day into long-term memory. Support for this idea stems from a number of sleep deprivation studies demonstrating that a lack of sleep has a serious impact on the ability to recall and remember information.?? The Clean-Up Theory of Sleep Another major theory suggests that sleep allows the brain to clean itself up. The October 2013 mouse study found that the brain cleans itself of toxins and waste produced during the day while asleep. Brain cells produce waste products during their normal activities. As we sleep, fluid flow through the brain increases. This acts as something of a waste disposal system, cleansing out the brain of these waste products.??   A Word From Verywell While there are research and evidence to support each of these theories of sleep, there is still no clear-cut support for any one theory. It is also possible that each of these theories can be used to explain why we sleep. Sleeping impacts many physiological processes, so it is very possible that sleep occurs for many reasons and purposes. In all likelihood, sleep serves a number of different physiological and psychological purposes including cleaning up brain toxins and consolidating information into memory. 7 Breathing Exercises for Better Sleep

How Divorce Is Affected Much More Significantly Than Those...

I am writing you because of a serious problem I see in our society. This problem has gotten out of hand with close to fifty percent of all marriages ending in divorce and it is affecting every aspect of our culture including churches such as your own. It is often seen as an easy choice with few consequences when in reality it is having devastating effects. Divorce is the problem of which I speak. Not only is it directly affecting those involved by wreaking havoc on their lives but it is also tearing down society as we know it. The statistics are abundantly clear, children who come out of broken homes are negatively affected much more significantly than those from two parent families. Dr. Patrick F. Fagan, Director of the Marriage and Religion Research Institute, and Robert Rector, Senior Research Fellow in Domestic Policy Studies at The Heritage Foundation, wrote an article that describes some of these negative affects. According to these experts, children of divorced parents exhibit more behavioral, health, and emotional problems, are involved more frequently in drug abuse, and have higher rates of suicide. They perform more poorly in reading, spelling, and math, and have higher school drop-our rates and lower rates of college graduation. Society, in turn, is greatly impacted because children that come out of divorced families are a huge part of the next generation. Society is in a downward spiral from generation to generation because of divorce. To begin to solve thisShow MoreRelatedDivorce And Its Effect On Children998 Words   |  4 PagesDivorce has become very popular in the United States. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, on average 50% of marriages result in a failed marriage. This percentage has been at it’s all time high. Not many couples have sustained a successful marriage in present days. Divorces have been around for a long time, and unfortunately kids have always been affected the most according to their age. As a result of divorce, there are many children that have to go through this situation at a very young ageRead MoreThe Effects Of Divorce On Teens And Adolescence946 Words   |  4 PagesEffects of Divorce on Teens and Adolescence. Every year, thousands of American children suffer through their parent’s divorce. Divorce hurts everyone involved, but most of the damage falls to the children to bear and can even put their lives at risk. Even though divorce has been shown to help some individuals in a miniscule amount of individual cases, over the large scale of available cases it causes a decrease in the individuals’ quality of life. The changes and effects can scale anywhere from theirRead MoreIf I Was In A Rocky Marriage, Would I Stay In The Marriage1372 Words   |  6 Pagesmarriage for the sake of my children or would I get a divorce? Divorce isn’t ideal for anyone. No one wants to think that the person they vowed to forever love and always be with through thick and thin would ever want, let alone consider a divorce. No one wants this! But in certain situations, what would you consider is the best option, especially if the kids were involved? Divorcing is probably the toughest decision fo r any marriage. The parents have to consider the positive and negative effects thatRead MoreHow School And Education Affects The Lives Of African American Males And Females1650 Words   |  7 Pagesand education happens to be one of the main things affected in the lives of both African American males and females living in single parent households. Parents tend to become less involved in the childs academics and social activities in school from the stress of being a single parent and having so much responsibility on them. It seemingly gets worse by the time the child reaches high school. One survey asked high school students whether their parents helped them with their school work and supervisedRead MoreDivorce And Its Effect On Marriage Essay1484 Words   |  6 PagesDivorce is characterized as the legitimate end of a marriage, yet in its genuine sense, there is significantly more to it than simply the end of a relationship. These days numerous relational unions end in separation, and shockingly the vast majority of them end at their initial stages. This is a vital study in sociological research today as alongside separation rates going up, individuals level of strain and faltering about marriage is likewise expanding. At the present time, the general publicRead MoreDivorce Where Children Are Involved Essay1561 Words   |  7 PagesDivorce has become a major part of our society and affects many people every year. In some instances of divorce, families have been torn apart leaving children stuck in the middle of conflict. This is where children start lashing out at their parents and everyone around them and it is because they are hurt and out of their comfort zone. One cannot forget about the children that divorce affects in a negative way. However, this is not always the case. There are children of divorce that get throughRead MoreWhy Parents Should Not Leave After The Divorce Essay1673 Words   |  7 Pages Divorce is an ill-emotional experience that changes the lives of both parents and their children (Chavez, 2010). The relationship between parents is really important to the children as it makes them feel more confident. Mostly we see these things changing when the parents separated due to the custodial parent as children become more confused in their lives. It also leaves the parents affected. The literature covering this issue suggests that these disturbing events affect parents’ emotional, psychologicalRead MoreThe Effects Of Divorce On Children And Their Parents Essay1270 Words   |  6 PagesDivorce is a life-transforming event that is caused by and lead to a variety of different conditions. Above all else, divorce has a huge influence on children and their parents, respectively. For parents who are getting divorced, it is crucially important to keep an eye on kids’ mental conditions and behavior – for children found themselves lost in such â€Å"unfamiliar † situation (Raynish, 2007). It has been researched by American Psychological Association (2016) that the divorce rate significantlyRead MoreChildren Coping With Parent s Dissolution975 Words   |  4 PagesChildren coping with parent’s dissolution have more problem adjusting to life events: â€Å"Research on interparental conflict and child adjustment† has shown that parental conflicts that are overt, intense, and child related are more strongly associated with child maladjustment than conflicts that are less evident (covert), intense, and not child related† (Davies Cummings, 2006; Grych Fincham, 1990). In a long term consequence, there are chances that they, when growing up, do not believe in marriageRead MoreFinance : The Five Highest Caused Of Divorce994 Words   |  4 PagesFinance was one of the five highest caused of divorce. A survey that was conducted by The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79), sponsored by the Bureau of Labor Statistics was nationally representat ive of 12,686 individuals. They first started to hand out survey in 1979 when the respondents were between the ages of fourteen and twenty-two, until 1994 and surveyed every year since then (Britt, Sonya, and Sandra). This survey asked the respondents on relationship satisfaction based on

The Characteristics of Essay Samples on Films

The Characteristics of Essay Samples on Films If you would like to go to NYU, you better have a great reason behind it. If you are searching for assistance with your essay then we provide a comprehensive writing service offered by fully qualified academics in your area of study. This is but among the top areas to meet essentially the most exciting folks in New York. Critical essay is a type of academic writing. Movie Review Essay may also be found online. Writing a critical essay gives us the opportunity to have a look at things from a different viewpoint. In the event that you were requested to compose a crucial essay about The Canterbury Tales, be sure you are conversant with the material. If you wish to make movies that force people to think about the consequences of racism or sexism, then sound off! Another manner of confronting stereotypes is by showing that while a specific sort of behavior may exist in some of the group, it's not systemic. It's managed to persist for a couple reasons, but the actual determinant is the importance put on learning English. The significance of this hidden agenda of the filmmakers is they aspire to attain some reaction from the audience and to possess the viewers reexamine a number of the values and traditions. If you'll write a comparative essay, you want to get a notion of the impacts of distinct a spects to the result which you can get at the conclusion of the writing activity. The major idea of all of the criticism is to give an opinion both of positive or negative implication. Give a brief review of the critical things you have discussed. Examine both these views and provide your own opinion. A crucial essay is intended to be informative, meaning that all claims ought to be backed up by a credible evidence instead of simply stated because it strikes the author's fancy. It's also critical that you check the credibility of your sources. Numerous alternative logical structures for essays are visualized as diagrams, making them simple to implement or adapt in the building of an argument. Emphasize only a couple of key points so that you can concentrate on it. The Good, the Bad and Essay Samples on Films The movie has a superb script, stunning characters, and all-natural dialogue. Watching movies is my favourite pastime. It's tough to place a great deal of films within a category. Because of this plenty of films have several genres. Reflect somewhat on the movie genre, perhaps mentioning a couple of classical movies of the very same kind and comparing them to the one which you're analyzing. Don't worry you'll upset someone. The most significant thing is to select the ideal genre. Everyone has their favourite genre, favorite movie that's generally characterize an individual. The 5-Minute Rule for Essay Samples on Films A type of excellent sample essay is usually focused on an excellent grade. If you chance to be thinking about including a theater space, a consideration will most likely be space. The next step is via the grit clarifier where small solids that have passed the very first step are taken out of the waste water. It might relieve tension and help the blood method of growing oxygen and nutrients for the tissues. The Argument About Essay Samples on Films Appropriate management can provide you with many numerous years of healthy. You might believe that this is a really long process only for deve loping the ideas you will present. You want to get familiar with the primary elements of cinematic structure and receive a better comprehension of the movie industry. There are lots of genres. Additional Entertainment Value is part of a programme whose aim is to entertain or draw the audience's interest. Topics about movies include discussion of the historical facet of its creation, the information regarding the producer, actors, place, and other facets. Cinema is among the most charming visual mediums that have captured the interest of the audience, from several parts of the planet. When planning on your house cinema, you would like to make sure. Inside my opinion, the regional governments should help enhance the standard of domestic films by supplying subsidies and other kinds of financial help. For instance, Iranian movies are well-known for their social messages and Hollywood films are famed for their usage of latest technologies. Some people today say that now we can observe films on our phones or tablets there's no need to visit the cinema. Since you can see in the graph below, the typical time spent is around 110 hours each year.

Court Issues Free Essays

The criminal justice system has changed tremendously over the decades and so has society. It is important that the court system make changes to keep up with the times. There are parts of the court system that need to be identified to have these changes occur. We will write a custom essay sample on Court Issues or any similar topic only for you Order Now One of these areas is the way courts are managed including their problems and resolutions. A new trend that has emerged is victims’ rights. Victims can now intervene in the cases before sentencing. In the future, courts could lose cases to arbitration and mediation also known as the private sector of the courts. Understanding these changes and issues are important so that the courts can correspond with the trends as they occur. The courts are an important piece of the justice system. In order to meet the domains of the criminal justice system the courts evolve with the new processes and trends as they happen. Below the paragraphs will analyze and explore future management issues dealing with technological innovations and how the new technology is impacting the courts. Along with how victims’ rights are impacting the courts. One of the main issues that the courts are facing in the future is the possible division between the private law sector and the courts. The technological innovations also impacts the courts staff and judges. Current and future trends facing the courts and administrators One of the issues facing the court system today is judges are not able to see many cases because of their administrative role. Judges spend the majority of their time â€Å"papering budgets, scheduling cases, supervising employees, and maintaining court records† (Robinson, 2009, pg. 208, para 5). The courthouse employee’s work together getting cases dispensed as quickly as possible. Some of these cases are dismissed before even being seen because of how many cases there are. Many of the minor cases are plea bargained so that the more serious cases can be seen. In doing this the judges and the courts have more time to spend on the very serious cases such as murder cases. The court system has to make adjustments due to the many cases that they have coming through the courts and they would never caught up because of the fact that there are many people having run in with the law enforcement. Another problem that courts are facing today is the imbalance of power. In the courtroom today the prosecutors have more power because there are the ones that decide if there is going to be charges filed against someone. This means that if the prosecutor does not prosecute a case the judge and defense attorney will have no say in the outcome of that case. One former United States Attorney General has stated â€Å"the prosecutor has more control over life, liberty, and reputation than any other person in America† (Robinson, 2009, pg. 209, para 4). The power that the judges have has been reduced because of the changes in sentencing and rules. The mandatory sentencing laws has given prosecutors the increase power of prosecution control over cases and how they are disposed of. With the power that prosecutors have the justice system is being threatened. If the law was still equal the defense attorney would have the resources they need to help the defendant. The defense attorneys have heavy caseloads because they work for the government and their resources are limited that they can access. Issues and trends regarding language interpretation services Throughout the United States individuals rely on the court system to solve issues and controversies in their lives. Language barriers between an individual and the courts cause the process to get delayed because it causes communication and understanding problems. When a witness is on the stand testifying that speaks a different language that interpreters need to understand what the witness is saying so they can communicate their true meaning of their statement. The United States accepts many different immigrants and the way of communicating. One of the fundamental rights that the United States has is to recognize the important reason why immigrants come to the United States, â€Å"in our country’s belief in equal justice for all, but to have equal justice, every victim, every witness must understand what is happening in the courtroom† (Board of Directors, 2007, pg. 3, para 2). With the increasing population of immigrants that do not speak English is making it harder to accommodate for people because the courts have to make sure that the interpreter fully understands the language and can translate what the witness is saying. New York courts employ approximately 300 full and part time court interpreters, and 1,200 interpreters on the per diem bases, to provide services in over 100 languages† (Board of Directors, 2007, pg. 4, para 2). The multi-faceted type of communication makes it harder for interpreters in the courtrooms because of the words meaning different things in the different cultures in the Un ited States. An interpreter of the courts also needs to understand legal terminology and procedures of the cultural content that impacts all individuals involved in the case. Interpreters will succeed in their jobs if they can convey what the speaker is meaning to say without altering the expression or tone of the speaker. There are three types of interpreting, which are; consecutive, simultaneous, and sight. Consecutive interpreting is when the interpreter waits for a group of words to be spoken before they interpret what was said. Simultaneous is when the interpreter listens and interprets in a different language at the same time. The last is sight and this is when interpreters read one language and translates it aloud in another. Language interpretation services is a permanent component in the criminal justice system so that the constitutional rights requirements are meet for all individuals. Courts are now required to appoint an interpreter when defendants and witnesses do not speak English in a case. Impact that victim rights laws have on court proceedings (past, present, future) Thirty years ago, victims’ rights did not exist. The victims were not notified about the courts processing or if the case was dropped and the defendant was released. Today, every state has an extensive body of basic rights and protections for victims within its statutory code† (Office for Victims of Crime, 2013). Activists discussed amending the Constitution of the United States to recognize victims’ rights statutes in the criminal justice proceedings. It was not until 1982 that a President’s Task Force on victims of crime suggested for the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution to be amended so that victims are included in the judicial proceedings. California was the first state to adopt the constitutional amendment in 1982 and by the end of the 21 century 49 states passed the victims’ Bill of Rights and this gave victims benefits and options in their case. Two presidents supported the amendment of the constitution at the end of the 21st century. The amendment gave victims the right to receive information, protection, and restitution from the offender. This also gave the victim the right to express their views on sentencing, bail, and parole. Victims’ rights has come a long way sense the early 1970’s and will continue to change as it needs too. There are several issues facing the courts and courts administrators system today. The analysis above discussed these issues and give information to support the findings. The information of future management issues and trends regarding language interpretation was discussed in the analysis. The past, present, and future impact of victims’ rights laws on the court proceeding were discussed in detail. How to cite Court Issues, Papers

Lockout/Tagout Essays - Occupational Safety And Health,

Lockout/Tagout It is a hot day in the middle of July, and there is a brother and sister impatiently waiting while their mother finishes packing for their trip to Disneyworld. This is their father's last day to work before his vacation starts. Their father is an air conditioning technician, and this morning he was called out to a movie theater to work on an air conditioning unit. This particular unit is located on the roof of the theater. It had been raining the day before; on the roof around the unit water is standing where he is going to have to work. In checking the unit out, he finds electrical problems that require him to shut the power off to the unit. He looks for the disconnect at the unit. Not finding one, he discovers that the only way to shut the power off is a breaker located downstairs inside the projection booth. He turns the breaker off and goes back on the roof to repair the unit. He does not know that someone has also connected one of the projectors to the same breaker. While he is working on the unit, the projectionist comes in and finds out that one of the projectors will not work, so he checks the breaker and finds it in the off position. He does not know that the air conditioning unit is also on that breaker. The projectionist turns the breaker on and at the same time, the technician working on the unit is standing in the water with his hands on the wiring. The electricity flows and electrocutes the technician, killing him. If this unit had been properly Lockedout/Taggedout, the brother and sister would be enjoying Disneyworld with their father. Instead, they are attending his funeral. Lockout/Tagout is essential in the workplace because it prevents unneeded shutdowns, saves money, and prevents loss of limb and life. Lockout/Tagout is essential in the workplace because it prevents unneeded shutdowns. These shutdowns are primarily the result of improper Lockout/Tagout procedures. In Lockout/Tagout: A Matter of Control, Susannah Zak Figura explains that in 1996 OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) reported that Lockout/Tagout was the third most frequently cited standard and that the average number of days lost from work was twenty-four per incident (27-9). In some cases, a portion of the building or factory could be destroyed by fire and cause the business to shutdown longer than was originally anticipated. According to Tommy Gilbreath, Associate Professor at The University of Texas at Tyler, There is nothing more unproductive than an injured worker (Personal interview). Often these companies wait until an accident occurs to implement the proper Lockout/Tagout procedures. Companies that have proper Lockout/Tagout programs in place have fewer accidents, lost work time, and fewer shut downs than companies that do not. Safety is no accident explains Frank C. De Felice, author of Electrical Construction and Maintenance (48). According to Occupational Hazards, AK Steel, a company with a bad safety record, hired a former OSHA compliance officer as vice president of safety and health to help the company comply with OSHA's rules. Since 1993, AK Steel, the nation's seventh largest steelmaker, has had a flash fire that killed one and injured two and an explosion that injured fourteen (Federal OSHA targets AK Steel for Fines and Further Inspections 25). OSHA issued more than 6,000 citations in 1996 alone for the violation of the Lockout/Tagout standard. Lockout/Tagout is a common sense approach to safety. Yet, many companies do not implement it until an accident injures or kills someone. Then it is a little late. Some companies have had Lockout/Tagout procedures in place long before the OSHA standard went into effect in 1990; because the policies were not written down, so metimes crucial steps were left undone (Figura 27-9). Performing Lockout/Tagout properly prevents losses arising from failure to control hazardous energy. Figura notes that in 1994 a 3,700-pound table broke loose from temporary slings and crushed a worker killing him. Because of this accident, OSHA cited the company for failure to control hazardous energy, i.e. gravity, and fined it $2.1 million. Under the Lockout/Tagout rule, hazardous energy must be isolated and rendered inoperative before work can begin. Not having the proper procedures in

Tim OBrien essays

Tim OBrien essays The terms fear and courage played a major role in the life experience of Tim O'Brien. Like most other young males who just graduated college, in 1968 after graduating from Macalester College in St. Paul, Minnesota, he sought different opportunities in hopes of becoming independent and gaining a career. Before these hopes of opportunity are realized, however, he receives notice that he has been drafted to the Vietnam War. He acknowledges the tragedies that may occur in war, and fears for his life. Generally courage is a way of overcoming fear. However, in O'Brien's supreme perspective, he reveals his extreme fear of courage. He finds himself in a "moral emergency" where he must analyze his perception of courage in order to make such a critical decision (901). After his analysis, he felt that as much as he feared loosing his life in war, he couldnt reveal that reason for not wanting to go to war to avoid any type of humiliation. He doubted his life if he pursued on with the process of war and therefore made excuses for himself to stay out. Because O'Brien didn't accept the challenge to follow his heart, he took the easy way out and went to war. His lack of courage forced him to live under the circumstance of not believing in him and theyre of continuing by facing the results of his fear of war. O'Brien compared his thoughts of fear and courage and believed that he had the potential to be full of courage, but does not realize the effort he must contribute. He doesnt realize that becoming independent is process he must go through in order to make a difference and solve his problems. He doesnt want to attend war because he fears it, what in the world can he do? Many can answer what they could do but OBrien was in doubt of what he could do for himself in order to be out of such of a dilemma. He writes "Courage, I seemed to think, comes to us in finite quantities, like an inheritance, and by being fru...

Battle of Wauhatchie in the Civil War

Battle of Wauhatchie in the Civil War fBattle of Wauhatchie - Conflict Dates: The Battle of Wauhatchie was fought October 28-29, 1863, during the American Civil War (1861-1865).   Armies Commanders: Union Major General Joseph HookerBrigadier General John W. Geary3 divisions Confederate Lieutenant General James Longstreet1 division Battle of Wauhatchie - Background: Following the defeat at the Battle of Chickamauga, the Army of the Cumberland retreated north to Chattanooga.  There Major General William S. Rosecrans and his command were besieged by General Braxton Braggs Army of Tennessee.  With the situation deteriorating, the Union XI and XII Corps were detached from the Army of the Potomac in Virginia and sent west under the leadership of Major General Joseph Hooker.  In addition, Major General Ulysses S. Grant received orders to come east from Vicksburg with part of his army and assume command over all Union troops around Chattanooga.  Overseeing the newly-created Military Division of the Mississippi, Grant relieved Rosecrans and replaced him with Major General George H. Thomas.   Battle of Wauhatchie - Cracker Line: Assessing the situation, Grant implemented a plan devised by Brigadier General William F. Baldy Smith for reopening a supply line to Chattanooga.  Dubbed the Cracker Line, this called for Union supply boats to land cargo at Kelleys Ferry on the Tennessee River.  It would then move east to Wauhatchie Station and up Lookout Valley to Browns Ferry.  From there goods would re-cross the river and move over Moccasin Point to Chattanooga.  To secure this route, Smith would establish a bridgehead at Browns Ferry while Hooker moved overland from Bridgeport to the west (Map).   Though Bragg was unaware of the Union plan, he directed Lieutenant General James Longstreet, whose men held the Confederate left, to occupy Lookout Valley.  This directive was ignored by Longstreet whose men remained on Lookout Mountain to the east.  Before dawn on October 27, Smith successfully secured Browns Ferry with two brigades led by Brigadier Generals William B. Hazen and John B. Turchin.  Alerted to their arrival, Colonel William B. Oates of the 15th Alabama attempted a counterattack but was unable to dislodge the Union troops.  Advancing with three divisions from his command, Hooker reached Lookout Valley on October 28.  Their arrival surprised Bragg and Longstreet who were having a conference on Lookout Mountain.  Ã‚   Battle of Wauhatchie - The Confederate Plan: Reaching Wauhatchie Station on the Nashville Chattanooga Railroad, Hooker detached Brigadier General John W. Gearys division and proceeded north to encamp at Browns Ferry.  Due to a shortage of rolling stock, Gearys division had been reduced by a brigade and was only supported by the four guns of Knaps Battery (Battery E, Pennsylvania Light Artillery).  Recognizing the threat posed by Union forces in the valley, Bragg directed Longstreet to attack.  After assessing the Hookers deployments, Longstreet determined to move against Gearys isolated force at Wauhatchie.  To accomplish this, he ordered Brigadier General Micah Jenkins division to strike after dark.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Moving out, Jenkins sent the brigades of Brigadier Generals Evander Law and Jerome Robertson to occupy high ground south of Browns Ferry.  This force was tasked with preventing Hooker from marching south to aid Geary.  To the south, Brigadier General Henry Bennings brigade of Georgians was directed to hold a bridge over Lookout Creek and act as a reserve force.  For the assault against the Union position at Wauhatchie, Jenkins assigned Colonel John Brattons brigade of South Carolinians.  At Wauhatchie, Geary, concerned about being isolated, posted Knaps Battery on a small knoll and ordered his men to sleep with their weapons at hand.  The 29th Pennsylvania from Colonel George Cobhams brigade provided pickets for the entire division. Battle of Wauhatchie - First Contact: Around 10:30 PM, the lead elements of Brattons brigade engaged the Union pickets.  Approaching Wauhatchie, Bratton ordered the Palmetto Sharpshooters to move east of the railroad embankment in an attempt to flank Gearys line.  The 2nd, 1st, and 5th South Carolinas extended the Confederate line west of the tracks.  These movements took time in the darkness and it was not until 12:30 AM that Bratton commenced his assault.  Slowing the enemy, the pickets from the 29th Pennsylvania bought Geary time to form his lines.  While the 149th and 78th New Yorks from Brigadier General George S. Greenes brigade took a position along the railroad embankment facing east, Cobhams remaining two regiments, the 111th and 109th Pennsylvanias, extended the line west from the tracks (Map).  Ã‚   Battle of Wauhatchie - Fighting in the Dark: Attacking, the 2nd South Carolina quickly sustained heavy losses from both the Union infantry and Knaps Battery.  Hampered by the darkness, both sides were often reduced firing at the muzzle flashes of the enemy.  Finding some success on the right, Bratton attempted to slip the 5th South Carolina around Gearys flank.  This movement was blocked by the arrival of Colonel David Irelands 137th New York.  While pushing this regiment forward, Greene fell wounded when a bullet shattered his jaw.  As a result, Ireland assumed command of the brigade.  Seeking to press his attack against the Union center, Bratton slid the battered 2nd South Carolina to the left and threw forward the 6th South Carolina.   In addition, Colonel Martin Garys Hampton Legion was ordered to the far Confederate right.  This caused the 137th New York to refuse its left to prevent being flanked.  Support for the New Yorkers soon arrived as the 29th Pennsylvania, having re-formed from picket duty, took a position on their left.  As the infantry adjusted to each Confederate thrust, Knaps Battery took heavy casualties.  As the battle progressed both battery commander Captain Charles Atwell and Lieutenant Edward Geary, the generals eldest son, fell dead.  Hearing the fighting to the south, Hooker mobilized the XI Corps divisions of Brigadier Generals Adolph von Steinwehr and Carl Schurz.  Moving out, Colonel Orland Smiths brigade from von Steinwehrs division soon came under fire from Law.   Veering east, Smith began a series of assaults on Law and Robertson.  Drawing in Union troops, this engagement saw the Confederates hold their position on the heights.  Having repulsed Smith several times, Law received erroneous intelligence and ordered both brigades to withdraw.  As they departed, Smiths men attacked again and overran their position.  At Wauhatchie, Gearys men were running low on ammunition as Bratton prepared another assault.  Before this moved forward, Bratton received word that Law had withdrawn and that Union reinforcements were approaching.  Unable to maintain his position in these circumstances, he repositioned the 6th South Carolina and Palmetto Sharpshooters to cover his withdraw and began retreating from the field. Battle of Wauhatchie - Aftermath:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the fighting at the Battle of Wauhatchie, Union forces sustained 78 killed, 327 wounded, and 15 missing while Confederate losses numbered 34 killed, 305 wounded, and 69 missing.  One of the few Civil War battles fought entirely at night, the engagement saw the Confederates fail to close the Cracker Line to Chattanooga.  Over the coming days, supplies began to flow to the Army of the Cumberland.  Following the battle, a rumor circulated that Union mules had been stampeded during the battle leading the enemy to believe that they were being attacked by cavalry and ultimately their causing their retreat.  Though a stampede may have occurred, it was not the cause of the Confederate withdrawal.  Over the next month, Union strength grew and in late November Grant commenced the Battle of Chattanooga which drove Bragg from the area. Selected Sources Civil War Trust: Battle of WauhatchieCWSAC Battle Summaries: Battle WauhatchieHistory of War: Battle of Wauhatchie